package zar

Zar OCaml: formally verified sampling from discrete probability distributions.

See the related paper (appeared at PLDI'23), the main Zar Github repository and similar Haskell package, and blog post.

Why use Zar?

Probabilistic Choice

A basic operation in randomized algorithms is probabilistic choice: for some p ∈ [0,1], execute action a1 with probability p or action a2 with probability 1-p (i.e., flip a biased coin to determine the path of execution). A common method for performing probabilistic choice is as follows:

if Random.float 1.0 < p then a1 else a2

where p is a float in the range [0,1] and Random.float 1.0 produces a random float in the range [0,1). While good enough for many applications, this approach is not always correct due to float roundoff error. We can only expect a1 to be executed with probability p + ϵ for some small error term ϵ, which technically invalidates any correctness guarantee of our overall system that depends on the correctness of its probabilistic choices.

Zar provides an alternative that is formally proved (in Coq) to execute a1 with probability p (where num and denom are integers such that p = num / denom):

let coin = Zar.coin num denom in (* Build coin sampler *)
if coin#gen () (* Look at first flip of the coin *)
  then a1 else a2

The expression Zar.coin num denom builds a sampler object that flips a coin with bias p = num / denom. Internally, the coin is constructed as a stream transformer of type bool Seq.t -> bool Seq.t (see OCaml's lazy sequence library) that transforms an input source of fair coin flips into an output stream of biased coin flips. The coin transformer is applied to a default source of fair coin flips based on the OCaml Random module, and then wrapped in a stateful sampler object that provides a simplified interface for consuming elements from the stream. The following code is equivalent:

let coin_stream = Zar.bits () |> Zar.coin_transformer num denom in
let coin = new Zar.sampler coin_stream in
if coin#gen () (* Look at first flip of the coin *)
  then a1 else a2

The user has the option to apply the coin transformer to their own source of fair coin flips instead (perhaps one connected to a "true" source of randomness such as the NIST randomness beacon).

Uniform Sampling

Another common operation is to randomly draw from a finite collection of values with equal (uniform) probability of each. An old trick for drawing an integer uniformly from the range [0, n) is to generate a random integer from [0, RAND_MAX] and take the modulus wrt. n:

k = rand() % n // Assign to k a random integer from [0,n)
// do something with k

but this method suffers from modulo bias when n is not a power of 2, causing some values to occur with higher probability than others (see, e.g., this article for more information on modulo bias). Zar provides a uniform sampler that is guaranteed for any integer 0 < n to generate samples from the range [0,n) with probability 1/n each:

let die = Zar.die n in
let k = die#gen () in (* k drawn uniformly from [0,n) *)
(* do something with k *)

Although the OCaml function Random.int is ostensibly free from modulo bias, our implementation guarantees it by a formal proof of correctness in Coq.

Finite Distributions

The coin and die samplers are special cases of a more general construction for finite probability distributions that we provide here. Given a list of nonnegative integer weights weights such that 0 < weightsᵢ for some i (at least one of the weights is nonzero), we can draw an integer k from the range [0, |weights|) with probability weightsₖ / ∑ⱼweightsⱼ (the corresponding weight of k normalized by the sum of all weights):

let findist = Zar.findist weights in
let k = findist#gen () in
(* do something with k *)
...

For example, Zar.findist [1; 3; 2] builds a sampler that draws integers from the set {0, 1, 2} with Pr(0) = 1/6, Pr(1) = 1/2, and Pr(2) = 1/3.

Trusted Computing Base

The samplers provided by Zar have been implemented and verified in Coq and extracted to OCaml for execution. Validity of the correctness proofs is thus dependent on the correctness of Coq's extraction mechanism, the OCaml compiler and runtime, and a small amount of OCaml shim code (viewable here and thoroughly tested with QCheck here),

Proofs of Correctness

The samplers are implemented as choice-fix (CF) trees (an intermediate representation used in the Zar compiler) and compiled to interaction trees that implement them via reduction to sequences of fair coin flips. See Section 3 of the paper for details and the file ocamlzar.v for their implementations and proofs of correctness.

Correctness is two-fold. For biased coin with bias p, we prove:

• coin_itree_correct: the probability of producing true according to the formal probabilistic semantics of the constructed interaction tree is equal to p, and

• coin_true_converges: when the source of random bits is uniformly distributed, for any sequence of coin flips the proportion of true samples converges to p as the number of samples goes to +∞.

The equidistribution result is dependent on uniform distribution of the Boolean values generated by OCaml's Random.bool function. See the paper for a more detailed explanation.

Similarly, Theorem die_itree_correct proves semantic correctness of the n-sided die, and Corollary die_eq_n_converges that for any m < n the proportion of samples equal to m converges to 1 / n.

Theorem findist_itree_correct proves semantic correctness of findist samplers, and Corollary findist_eq_n_converges that for any weight vector weights and integer 0 <= i < |weights|, the proportion of samples equal to i converges to weightsᵢ / ∑ⱼweightsⱼ.

Usage

See zar.mli for the top-level interface.

Zar.bits () produces a stream of uniformly distributed random bits.

Zar.self_init () initializes the PRNG for Zar.bits (currently just calls Random.self_init).

Zar.init n initializes the PRNG for Zar.bits with a given seed.

Biased Coin

Zar.coin_transformer num denom builds a stream transformer that when applied to a stream of uniformly distributed random bits generates bool samples with Pr(True) = num/denom. Requires 0 <= num < denom and 0 < denom.

Zar.coin_stream num denom composes Zar.coin_transformer num denom with the default source of uniformly distributed random bits.

Zar.coin num denom builds a sampler object over the stream produced by Zar.coin_stream num denom.

N-sided Die

Zar.die_transformer n builds a stream transformer that when applied to a stream of uniformly distributed random bits generates int samples with Pr(m) = 1/n for integer m where 0 <= m < n .

Zar.die_stream n composes Zar.die_transformer n with the default source of uniformly distributed random bits.

Zar.die n builds a sampler object over the stream produced by Zar.die_stream n.

Finite Distribution

Zar.findist_transformer weights builds a stream transformer from list of nonnegative integer weights weights (where 0 < weightsᵢ for some i) that when applied to a stream of uniformly distributed random bits generates int samples with Pr(i) = weightsᵢ / ∑ⱼweightsⱼ for integer 0 <= i < |weights|.

Zar.findist_stream weights composes Zar.findist_transformer weights with the default source of uniformly distributed random bits.

Zar.findist weights builds a sampler object over the stream produced by Zar.findist_stream weights.

Performance and Limitations

The samplers here are optimized for sampling performance at the expense of build time. Thus, this library not be ideal if your use case involves frequent rebuilding due to changes in the samplers' parameters (e.g., the coin's bias or the number of sides of the die).

The size of the in-memory representation of a coin with bias p = num / denom is proportional to denom (after bringing the fraction to reduced form). The size of an n-sided die is proportional to n, and the size of a finite distribution to the sum of its weights. The formal results we provide are partial in the sense that they only apply to samplers that execute without running out of memory. I.e., we do not provide any guarantees against stack overflow or out-of-memory errors when, e.g., n is too large.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to mooreryan for comments and code contributions.